Introduction

The Temptation of St. Anthony (1500-1510) is an altarpiece by Jheronimus Bosch. Colorful altarpieces were closed during the Lenten period, the 40 days’ penitential preparation for Eastern, or just during the final week before Eastern, the Holy Week. For that reason, the reverse side of the wings often were painted in grey (grisaille) depicting scenes from the last week of the life of Jesus. The scene painted on the left wing, The Arrest of Christ, depicts the moments when Jesus was arrested in the garden of Gethsemane. On the foreground, Simon Peter swings his sword with the clear intention to attack Malchus, a servant of the high priest Caiaphas, who had ordered the arrest of Jesus. The relevant passage in the Gospel of John (18:10-11) reads: “then Simon Peter having a sword drew it, and cut off his right ear. The servant’s name was Malchus” [1]. It is impossible to know whether this event actually happened, although it has been argued that early Christians probably would not have made up stories which would depict them as violent. The interpretation of Bosch of this Biblical event is slightly different because from the positioning of Simon Peter and the way Malchus turns his head (see Figure 1), it is virtually impossible to cut off the right ear. The Gospel of Luke (22:50-51) describes Jesus’ response to this act of Simon Peter: “Jesus answered, “No more of this!”

And he touched the man’s ear and healed him” [2].

Above biblical event could be considered as the first recorded autotransplantation. During the following centuries, anecdotal references to transplantation and autotransplantation were classified as myths and miracles [3]. Autotransplantation of skin flaps for reconstruction of missing noses was practiced already in the 16th century [4]. Renal transplants in humans initially were performed using pig and goat donor kidneys [5], followed by using monkey kidneys [6]. These forms of transplantation are termed xenotransplantation, and, although technically successful, the kidneys lasted no longer than just a few days at best and all patients died soon afterwards. The first medical documented (successful) kidney transplantation was performed in 1954 in identical twins [7]. Liver, heart and pancreas transplants followed by the 1960s, and lung and intestinal organs in the 1980s [8,9]. Rejection, based on histo-incompatibility between donor and recipient turned out to be the major obstacle for lasting success [10]. Improvements in immunosuppressive treatment and matching of donor and recipient HLA have dramatically improved success rates [11,12]. The price to pay for immunosuppression is increased infection and malignancy risk, but identical donor organs, even matched donors, are scarce. The availability of a donor kidney from an identical twin is truly exceptional [7], even HLA-identical siblings are rare. Transplantation across histocompatibility barriers therefore requires immunosuppression with the inherent risk of infections and secondary malignancies. In autotransplantation, defined as transplantation (or repositioning) of organs or tissues in the same individual, the donor and recipient are the same person and therefore histo-compatible.

Autotransplantation of skin, hair and teeth

Autotransplantation of teeth is part of reconstructive oral surgery in case of unevenly distributed agenesis, missing lower premolars, missing or lost incisors, as well for repositioning of ectopic teeth [13-15]. Other bony elements can be used for autografting to repair complex bone fractures, for fractures that would pose a health risk, or which do not heal properly [16,17]. Autologous bone transplantation is osteoinductive and osteogenic (meaning that osteoblasts originating from the graft material contribute to new bone growth), as well as osteoconductive [18,19].

Autologous hair transplantation techniques are used for treatment of vitiligo [20] and alopecia [21], as well as for cosmetic reasons [22]. The outcome of skin transplantation for treatment of burn wounds would benefit from autologous skin. The major problem is that autologous skin needs to be pre-cultured and rapid healing of burn wounds is critical to relieving morbidity and reduce mortality [23]. It has been shown that autologous skin cell suspensions combined with hydrocolloid dressings accelerated epithelialization and improved healing [24].

Autotransplantation of internal organs

Autotransplantation of organs and tissues is performed for a variety of clinical indications (Table 1). Traumatic rupture of the spleen, splenic abscesses in case of tuberculosis and radical surgical clearance of adjacent tumors, all are indications for total splenectomy [25,26]. Furthermore, there are a number of diseases leading to splenomegaly, including sickle cell anemia and thrombocytopenic conditions, which benefit from splenectomy [26]. Major post-operative risk of splenectomy is Overwhelming Post Splenectomy Infection (OPSI), most often due to a Streptococcus pneumoniae sepsis. Prophylactic antibiotics and adequate vaccination can reduce these risks but do not compensate for other splenic functions. In case of splenectomy for trauma, autotransplantation (of part of the spleen) can be performed [27,28] which restores the functional lymphoid compartment of the spleen and improves the response to vaccination [29,30]. Kidney autotransplantation, involving the repositioning of the kidney, is being performed for various indications such as renal vessel pathologies, ureteral avulsion, urothelial malignancy, and renal trauma [31,32]. Parathyroid autotransplantation during total thyroidectomy has been advocated in order to prevent postoperative hypocalcemia and/or hypoparathyroidism [33,34]. In a retrospective study it was shown that 1) these complications are rare and 2) parathyroid autotransplantation had no significant effect in further reducing these complication [35] and therefore this advice has been abandoned [36].

Ex vivo liver resection and subsequent autotransplantation is used in treatment of advanced hepatic alveolar echinococcosis and advanced cholangiocarcinoma [37,38]. In patients with chronic pancreatitis and severe (abdominal) pain, total pancreatectomy is performed followed by islet autotransplantation to prevent the development of diabetes [39,40]. Islet autotransplantation is also performed in case of total pancreatectomy for benign or malignant diseases of the pancreas [41,42]. Cardiac autotransplantation is performed as part of the surgical resection of malignant [43] or complex benign tumors of the heart [44]. Cardiac autotransplantation involves explantation of the heart after which ex-vivo tumor resection is performed, damaged tissue reconstructed and the heart reimplanted [45]. Autotransplantation also is involved in coronary artery bypass surgery. Autologous blood vessels are used for grafting mostly the internal thoracic artery, the radial artery, and saphenous vein in that order [46,47].

Autologous transplantation of cells

Next to organs, also (mixtures of) cells are used for autologous transplantation. Autologous blood transfusion is a common procedure during elective surgical procedures. It can be based on preoperative autologous blood donation, acute normovolemic hemodilution, or intraoperative and postoperative autotransfusion of recovered blood lost during surgery [48,49]. Apart from strictly medical reasons for autologous blood transfusion, it is also used as a form of doping in high performance athletes such as cyclists and long-distance runners [50]. Because of improved detection methods for erythropoietin, athletes have reverted back to blood doping, although this form of doping now also can be detected [51]. Autologous blood transfusion is effective because in a controlled setting with recreational athletes, VO₂max and performance as measured with treadmill running performance tests improved by 17% and 15%, respectively [52].

Autologous transplantation of hematopoietic stem cells is being used for rescue of hematopoiesis after myeloablative therapy for malignancies and reconstitution of the immune system following intense therapy in autoimmune diseases. The four phases of autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation include: a) harvesting, purification and cryopreservation of autologous hematopoietic progenitor cells; b) administration of high-dose therapy for the underlying disease in the form of chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy; this phase is called conditioning or preparative regimen; c) thawing and infusion of the autologous cells; and the last phase d) reconstitution of hematopoiesis. During phase d, vigorous supportive care including prophylactic antibiotics, transfusion of blood components, and other measures is required [53-55]. Initially, hematopoietic stem cells were derived from bone marrow [56,57], but currently this has largely been replaced by blood derived stem cells. Normally, blood contains only very few CD34+ stem cells, but these numbers can be greatly expanded by administration of Granulocyte-Colony Stimulating Factor (G-CSF). Standard is a 5-day regimen of G-SCF, but addition of the reversible CXCR4 antagonist AMD3100 greatly improves stem cell mobilization [58-60]. Quite unexpectedly, the combination of AMD3100 and sildenafil also is a very potent (no pun intended) way to mobilize peripheral CD34⁺ stem cells [61]. The minimum dose of CD34⁺ cells for a successful autologous stem cell transplantation is 2 x 10⁶ cells/kg recipient body weight, but ≥ 4–6 x 10⁶ cells/kg is considered optimal [62,63].

Autologous stem cell transplantation is most often used in the treatment of leukemia and lymphoma, in particular multiple myeloma [64] and both Hodgkin’s and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma [65,66] (Figure 2). Autologous stem cell transplantation is also used in treatment of patients with recurrence of high-risk solid tumors that may respond to intensive chemo- or radio-therapy, including neuroblastoma, soft tissue sarcoma/Ewing, and germinal tumors [67-69]. Autoimmune diseases are also being treated with autologous stem cell transplantation [70,71]. The underlying principle is that existing lymphocyte subsets are eliminated by intense therapy, after which repopulation of the immune system can take place, with establishment of self-tolerance. Multiple sclerosis and systemic sclerosis are the autoimmune diseases most treated with autologous stem cell transplantation in Europe [72,73], but also a variety of other systemic and organ-specific autoimmune diseases [74-76].

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells for autotransplantation

The main reason to prefer autotransplantation over allotransplantation is to minimize the risk for attack and rejection by the recipient’s immune system. For a great number of diseases an inherited or acquired genetic defect or functional impairment makes autotransplantation impossible. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSC) [79,80] could offer an alternative. Autologous iPSC-based therapy for genetic diseases becomes possible because the disease-causing gene defect can be repaired in vitro using CRISPR–Cas9 technology [81]. Neural [82], intestinal [83], kidney [84], lung [85,86], and cardiac [87] organoids have been grown which offer exciting new possibilities for disease modeling, drug discovery, and ultimately new treatment modalities for diseases like Hischprung disease, cystic fibrosis, and surfactant deficiency [81]. During generation of iPSCs and subsequent differentiation and long-term culture to generate organoids, mutations could arise. Indeed, it has been shown that especially in mitochondrial DNA, nonsynonymous mutations can arise which encode neoantigens that can elicit an immune response [88,89]. The prospects of iPSC based organoid autotransplantation are good, but these, and other potential limitations, should be considered.

Epilogue

Autotransplantation of organs and (stem)cells has become an established procedure in the treatment of a number of diseases. Novel biomedical technologies such as induced pluripotent stem cells, gene repair with CRISPR Cas, and 2D and 3D organoid cultures will further expand the therapeutic potential of autotransplantation. Strictly speaking, the attachment of the cut off ear of Malchus is not autotransplantation. Replantation is the term for reattaching a severed limb (or ear), so that term probably is more appropriate for the scene depicted in the Arrest of Christ (Figure 1). It was the last recorded miracle of Jesus, but the first recorded medical procedure of this type.

Table 1: Autotransplantation of organs and tissues.

References

1. Gospel of John. International Bible Society
2. Gospel of Luke. International Bible Society 2019.
3. Barker CF, Markmann JF (2013) Historical overview of transplantation. Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in medicine 3: a014977.
4. Tomba P, Viganò A, Ruggieri P, Gasbarrini A (2014) Gaspare Tagliacozzi, pioneer of plastic surgery and the spread of his technique throughout Europe in “De Curtorum Chirurgia per Insitionem” Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 18: 445-450.
5. Jaboulay M (1906) Kidney grafts in the antecubital fossa by arterial and venous anastomosis. Bull Lyon Med 107: 575-577.
6. Unger E (1910) Kidney transplantation. Wiener Klin Wochenschrift 47: 573.
7. Harrison JH, Merrill JP, Murray JE (1955) Renal homotransplantation in identical twins. Surg Forum 6: 432-436.
8. Marino IR, Cirillo C (2014) An abridged photographic history of organ transplantation. Exp Clin Transplant 12: 11-16.
9. Linden PK (2009) History of solid organ transplantation and organ donation. Crit Care Clin 25: 165-184.
10. Montgomery RA, Tatapudi VS, Leffell MS, Zachary AA (2018) HLA in transplantation. Nat Rev Nephrol 14: 558-570.
11. van Rood JJ, van Leeuwen A, Persijn GG, Lansbergen Q, Goulmy E, et al. (1977) Role of the HLA system in transplantation. HLA compatibility in clinical transplantation. Transplant Proc 9: 459-467.
12. Jansen J (2007) Jon Van Rood: pioneer at the crossroad of human leukocyte antigens and transplantation. Transfus Med Rev 21: 159-163.
13. Martin K, Nathwani S, Bunyan R (2018) Autotransplantation of teeth: an evidence-based approach. Br Dent J 224: 861-864.
14. Almpani K, Papageorgiou SN, Papadopoulos MA (2015) Autotransplantation of teeth in humans: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Oral Investig 19: 1157-1179.
15. Nimčenko T, Omerca G, Varinauskas V, Bramanti E, Signorino Fet al. (2013) Tooth auto-transplantation as an alternative treatment option: A literature review. Dental research journal 10: 1-6.
16. Miller CP, Chiodo CP (2016) Autologous Bone Graft in Foot and Ankle Surgery. Foot Ankle Clin 21: 825-837.
17. Azi ML, Aprato A, Santi I, Kfuri M Jr, Masse A, et al. (2016) Autologous bone graft in the treatment of post-traumatic bone defects: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 17: 465.
18. García-Gareta E, Coathup MJ, Blunn GW (2015) Osteoinduction of bone grafting materials for bone repair and regeneration. Bone 81: 112-121.
19. Horowitz RA, Leventis MD, Rohrer MD, Prasad HS (2014) Bone grafting: history, rationale, and selection of materials and techniques. Compend Contin Educ Dent 35: 1-6.
20. Shi HX, Zhang RZ, Xu B, Xu CX, Li D, et al. (2019) Experimental study and clinical observations of autologous hair follicle cell transplants to treat stable vitiligo. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2019
21. Scribel M, Dutra H, Trüeb RM (2018) Autologous Hair Transplantation in Frontal Fibrosing Alopecia. Int J Trichology 10: 169-171.
22. Umar S (2013) Use of body hair and beard hair in hair restoration. Facial Plast Surg Clin North Am 21: 469-477.
23. Klama-Baryła A, Kitala D, Łabuś W, Kraut M, Glik J, et al. (2018) Autologous and Allogeneic Skin Cell Grafts in the Treatment of Severely Burned Patients: Retrospective Clinical Study. Transplant Proc 50: 2179-2187.
24. Hu Z, Guo D, Liu P, Cao X, Li S, et al. (2017) Randomized clinical trial of autologous skin cell suspension for accelerating re-epithelialization of split-thickness donor sites. Br J Surg 104: 836-842.
25. Browning MG, Bullen N, Nokes T, Tucker K, Coleman M (2017) The evolving indications for splenectomy. Br J Haematol 177: 321-324.
26. Weledji EP (2014) Benefits and risks of splenectomy. Int J Surg 12: 113-119.
27. Di Carlo I, Toro A (2017) Splenic Autotransplantation Is Always Valid after Splenectomy. J Invest Surg 30: 401-402.
28. Pabst R, Kamran D (1986) Autotransplantation of splenic tissue. J Pediatr Surg 21: 120-124.
29. Leemans R, Harms G, Rijkers GT, Timens W (1999) Spleen autotransplantation provides restoration of functional splenic lymphoid compartments and improves the humoral immune response to pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine. Clin Exp Immunol 17: 596-604.
30. Leemans R, Manson W, Snijder JA, Smit JW, Klasen HJ, et al. (1999) Immune response capacity after human splenic autotransplantation: restoration of response to individual pneumococcal vaccine subtypes. Ann Surg 229: 279-285.
31. Alameddine M, Moghadamyeghaneh Z, Yusufali A, Collazo AM, Jue JS, et al. (2018) Kidney Autotransplantation: Between the Past and the Future. Curr Urol Rep 19: 7.
32. Moghadamyeghaneh Z, Hanna MH, Fazlalizadeh R, Obi Y, Foster CE, et al. (2017) A Nationwide Analysis of Kidney Autotransplantation. Am Surg 83: 162-169.
33. Bourgi A, Aoun R, Ayoub E, Moukarzel M (2018) Experience with Renal Autotransplantation: Typical and Atypical Indications. Advances in Urology 2018: 3404587.
34. Moffett JM, Suliburk J (2011) Parathyroid autotransplantation. Endocr Pract 17: 83-89.
35. Tartaglia F, Blasi S, Giuliani A, Merola R, Livadoti G, et al. (2016) Parathyroid autotransplantation during total thyroidectomy. Results of a retrospective study. Int J Surg 1: S79-83.
36. Sitges-Serra A, Lorente-Poch L, Sancho J (2018) Parathyroid autotransplantation in thyroid surgery. Langenbecks Arch Surg 403: 309-315.
37. Aji T, Dong JH, Shao YM, Zhao JM, Li T, et al. (2018) Ex vivo liver resection and autotransplantation as alternative to allotransplantation for end-stage hepatic alveolar echinococcosis. J Hepatol 69: 1037-1046.
38. George A, Rammohan A, Reddy SM, Rela M (2019) Ex situ liver resection and autotransplantation for advanced cholangiocarcinoma. BMJ Case Rep 12: e230808.
39. Tanhehco YC, Weisberg S, Schwartz J (2016) Pancreatic islet autotransplantation for nonmalignant and malignant indications. Transfusion 56: 761-770.
40. Kuroki T, Adachi T, Ono S, Tanaka T, Kitasato A, et al. (2013) Pancreatic islet autotransplantation with total pancreatectomy for chronic pancreatitis. Surg Today 43: 715-719.
41. Kocik M, Lipar K, Saudek F, Girman P, Boucek P, et al. (2014) Pancreatic islet autotransplantation after completion pancreatectomy for pancreatic fistula after hemipancreatoduodenectomy for carcinoma. Transplant Proc 46: 1996-1998.
42. Shindo Y, Kanak MA (2017) Total pancreatectomy with islet autotransplantation: recent updates and outcomes. Curr Opin Organ Transplant 22: 444-451.
43. Reardon MJ, DeFelice CA, Sheinbaum R, Baldwin JC (1999) Cardiac autotransplant for surgical treatment of a malignant neoplasm. Ann Thorac Surg 67: 1793-1795.
44. Cooley DA, Reardon MJ, Frazier OH, Angelini P (1985) Human cardiac explantation and autotransplantation: application in a patient with a large cardiac pheochromocytoma. Tex Heart Inst J 12: 171-176.
45. Blackmon SH, Patel AR, Bruckner BA, Beyer EA, Rice DC, et al. (2008) Cardiac autotransplantation for malignant or complex primary left-heart tumors. Texas Heart Institute journal 35: 296-300.
46. Sabik JF, Lytle BW, Blackstone EH, Houghtaling PL, Cosgrove DM (2005) Comparison of saphenous vein and internal thoracic artery graft patency by coronary system. Ann Thorac Surg 79: 544-551.
47. Possati G, Gaudino M, Prati F, Alessandrini F, Trani C, et al. (2003) Long-term results of the radial artery used for myocardial revascularization. Circulation 108: 1350-1354.
48. Vanderlinde ES, Heal JM, Blumberg N (2002) Autologous transfusion. BMJ 324: 772-775.
49. Zhou J (2016) A review of the application of autologous blood transfusion. Brazilian journal of medical and biological research 49: e5493.
50. Fitch KD (2017) Blood doping at the Olympic Games. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 57: 1526-1532.
51. Donati F, Acciarini R, De Benedittis I, de la Torre X, Pirri D, et al. (2018) Detecting Autologous Blood Transfusion in Doping Control: Biomarkers of Blood Aging and Storage Measured by Flow Cytofluorimetry. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 19: 124-135.
52. Malm CB, Khoo NS, Granlund I, Lindstedt E, Hult A (2016) Autologous Doping with Cryopreserved Red Blood Cells - Effects on Physical Performance and Detection by Multivariate Statistics. PLoS One 11: e0156157.
53. Watts MJ, Linch DC (2016) Optimisation and quality control of cell processing for autologous stem cell transplantation. Br J Haematol 175: 771-783.
54. Giralt S, Costa L, Schriber J, Dipersio J, Maziarz R, et al. (2014) Optimizing autologous stem cell mobilization strategies to improve patient outcomes: consensus guidelines and recommendations. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 20: 295-308.
55. Eleutherakis-Papaiakovou E, Kostis E, Migkou M, Christoulas D, Terpos E, et al. (2010) Prophylactic antibiotics for the prevention of neutropenic fever in patients undergoing autologous stem-cell transplantation: results of a single institution, randomized phase 2 trial. Am J Hematol 85: 863-867.
56. Jones RJ (1993) Autologous bone marrow transplantation. Curr Opin Oncol 5: 270-275.
57. McCarthy LJ, Danielson CF, Cornetta K, Srour EF, Broun ER (1995) Autologous bone marrow transplantation. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 32: 67-119.
58. Giralt S, Costa L, Schriber J, Dipersio J, Maziarz R, et al. (2014) Optimizing autologous stem cell mobilization strategies to improve patient outcomes: consensus guidelines and recommendations. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 20: 295-308.
59. Kim SJ, Yoon DH, Yang DH, Eom HS, Cho SG, et al. (2013) Plerixafor use for peripheral blood stem cell mobilization in Korea. Blood Res 48: 72-73.
60. Kim JS (2017) Hematopoietic stem cell mobilization: current status and future perspective. Blood Res 52: 79-81.
61. Smith-Berdan S, Bercasio A, Rajendiran S, Forsberg EC (2019) Viagra Enables Efficient, Single-Day Hematopoietic Stem Cell Mobilization, Stem Cell Reports 13: 787-792.
62. Cashen AF, Lazarus HM, Devine SM (2007) Mobilizing stem cells from normal donors: is it possible to improve upon G-CSF? Bone Marrow Transplant 39: 577-588.
63. Devine SM (2012) Toward a more rational policy for autologous hematopoietic stem cell mobilization. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 18: 1468-1470.
64. Al Hamed R, Bazarbachi AH, Malard F, Harousseau JL, Mohty M (2019) Current status of autologous stem cell transplantation for multiple myeloma. Blood cancer journal 9: 44.
65. Zahid U, Akbar F, Amaraneni A, Husnain M, Chan O, et al. (2017) A Review of Autologous Stem Cell Transplantation in Lymphoma. Current hematologic malignancy reports 12: 217-226.
66. Choi T (2019) Is autologous stem cell transplantation still relevant for multiple myeloma? Current Opinion in Hematology 26: 386-391.
67. Peinemann F, van Dalen EC, Enk H, Berthold F (2017) Retinoic acid postconsolidation therapy for high-risk neuroblastoma patients treated with autologous haematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 8: CD010685.
68. Fergadis E, Gavrielatou N, Skouteris N, Athanasopoulos A, Lianos E, et al. (2019) Myeloablative chemotherapy and autologous stem cell transplantation can lead to successful postengraftment mobilization of hematopoietic progenitors to support planned subsequent cycle(s) of high-dose chemotherapy and autografting in a patient with relapsed germ-cell tumor. Anticancer Drugs 30: 205-208.
69. Dourthe ME, Ternès N, Gajda D, Paci A, Dufour C, et al. (2016) Busulfan-Melphalan followed by autologous stem cell transplantation in patients with high-risk neuroblastoma or Ewing sarcoma: an exposed-unexposed study evaluating the clinical impact of the order of drug administration. Bone Marrow Transplant 51: 1265-1267.
70. Zeher M, Papp G, Nakken B, Szodoray P (2017) Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in autoimmune disorders: From immune-regulatory processes to clinical implications. Autoimmun Rev 16: 817-825.
71. Swart JF, Delemarre EM, van Wijk F, Boelens JJ, Kuball J, et al. (2017) Haematopoietic stem cell transplantation for autoimmune diseases. Nat Rev Rheumatol 13: 244-256.
72. Del Papa N, Pignataro F, Zaccara E, Maglione W, Minniti A (2018) Autologous Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation for Treatment of Systemic Sclerosis. Front Immunol 9: 2390.
73. Muraro PA, Martin R, Mancardi GL, Nicholas R, Sormani MP, et al. (2017) Autologous haematopoietic stem cell transplantation for treatment of multiple sclerosis. Nat Rev Neurol 13: 391-405.
74. Alexander T, Hiepe F (2017) Autologous haematopoietic stem cell transplantation for systemic lupus erythematosus: time ready for a paradigm shift? Clin Exp Rheumatol 35: 359-361.
75. Snowden JA, Badoglio M, Labopin M, Giebel S, McGrath E, et al. (2017) Evolution, trends, outcomes, and economics of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in severe autoimmune diseases. Blood Adv 1: 2742-2755.
76. Rebeiro P, Moore J (2016) The role of autologous haemopoietic stem cell transplantation in the treatment of autoimmune disorders. Intern Med J 46: 17-28.
77. European Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation (2019) Annual report 2018.
78. D'Souza A, Fretham C (2018) Current Uses and Outcomes of Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation (HCT): CIBMTR Summary Slides 2018.
79. Takahashi K, Yamanaka S (2006) Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors. Cell 126: 663-676.
80. Takahashi K, Tanabe K, Ohnuki M, Narita M, Ichisaka T, et al. (2007) Induction of pluripotent stem cells from adult human fibroblasts by defined factors. Cell 131: 861-872.
81. Rowe RG, Daley GQ (2019) Induced pluripotent stem cells in disease modelling and drug discovery. Nat Rev Genet 20: 377-388.
82. Lancaster MA, Renner M, Martin CA, Wenzel D, Bicknell LS, et al. (2013) Cerebral organoids model human brain development and microcephaly. Nature 501: 373-379.
83. Watson CL, Mahe MM, Múnera J, Howell JC, Sundaram N, et al. (2014) An in vivo model of human small intestine using pluripotent stem cells. Nat Med 20: 1310-1314.
84. Freedman BS (2015). Modeling Kidney Disease with iPS Cells. Biomark Insights 10: 153-169.
85. McCauley KB, Hawkins F, Serra M, Thomas DC, Jacob A, et al. (2017) Efficient Derivation of Functional Human Airway Epithelium from Pluripotent Stem Cells via Temporal Regulation of Wnt signaling. Cell Stem Cell 20: 844-857.
86. Jacob A, Morley M, Hawkins F, McCauley KB, Jean JC, et al. (2017) Differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells into functional lung alveolar epithelial cells. Cell Stem Cell 21: 472-488.
87. Hoang P, Wang J, Conklin BR, Healy KE, Ma Z (2018) Generation of spatial-patterned early-developing cardiac organoids using human pluripotent stem cells. Nat Protoc 13: 723-737.
88. Deuse T, Hu X, Agbor-Enoh S, Koch M, Spitzer MH, et al. (2019) De novo mutations in mitochondrial DNA of iPSCs produce immunogenic neoepitopes in mice and humans. Nat Biotechnol 37: 1137-1144.
89. Li C, Chen S, Zhou Y, Zhao Y, Liu P, et al. (2018) Application of induced pluripotent stem cell transplants: Autologous or allogeneic? Life Sci 212: 145-149.